Although content is important in online courses, designing effective learning experiences is, in large part, about carefully structuring how that content is introduced, practised, and eventually mastered. Central to this approach are three interlinked principles rooted in educational psychology—scaffolding, modelling, and fading.
These support learners as they move from novice to independent learner by gradually reducing instructional support while increasing cognitive challenge. In this blog post, we explore the implications of scaffolding, modelling, and fading in learning design.
Contents
Scaffolding
Support for learners as they progress
The term “scaffolding” was first linked to educational theory through the work of Vygotsky (1978), who introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development—the space between what a learner can achieve independently and what they can do alongside expert guidance. In this space, learning is maximised and facilitated when temporary support structures are in place.
These temporary structures are often called scaffolding, and they work similarly to the scaffolding you’d see on a construction site. They, at first, provide the necessary support in a sequenced way and allow learners to build their knowledge and confidence before being removed step by step (in a process called fading—discussed below).
A widely used approach to structuring scaffolded learning is the PPP model:
Presentation
New material is introduced in a context familiar to learners. This helps reduce cognitive load by anchoring unfamiliar concepts in prior knowledge.
Practice
Learners then apply the concept through structured activities with guidance and effective feedback from an instructor. This phase provides a low-stakes environment where errors are part of the learning process.
Production
Learners now use the new skill or knowledge independently in more complex or open-ended tasks, supported by personalised feedback.
This staged approach aligns with what we know about effective instructional design: it should ease learners into complexity, help manage working memory demands, and promote engagement and retention.
Modelling
Demonstration of the path forward
Once scaffolding has gradually been removed, learners should be able to apply their new knowledge independently. However, before learners can be expected to do this, they must first see what successful application looks like. This is where modelling plays a critical role, and is when the instructor demonstrates the desired skill, behaviour, or even thought process. This could be as simple as solving a maths problem aloud or as complex as narrating decision-making during a simulated clinical diagnosis—it all depends on the subject matter at hand.
Modelling makes the invisible visible. It exposes the internal strategies, decision points, and common misconceptions that underpin expert performance. By demystifying how to approach a problem, it gives learners both the confidence and the cognitive roadmap to begin engaging themselves.
Fading
Taking learners from support to autonomy
As discussed, scaffolding cannot remain in place forever. So, just as real scaffolds are removed once a building is structurally sound, instructional support should also be gradually reduced to promote learner autonomy and independence. This is a process known as fading.
According to Neelen and Kirschner (2020), the best practice for fading follows a four-step model:
Step 1
Worked example
Learners are provided with a fully solved example, with each step explicitly explained. This introduces the structure and logic of the task without requiring performance.
Step 2
Guided process representation
Learners observe a representation of the steps, such as through videos, images, or written instruction, that walks them through the process while still offering support.
Step 3
Problem pair/Case study
A similar example is presented, but with the learner actively engaging in identifying or analysing the solution path. This supports cognitive engagement while still scaffolding their understanding.
Step 4
Independent practice
Finally, learners are given a new but structurally similar problem to solve on their own. This is the moment of performance and consolidation.
An effective fading process ensures that learners are neither thrown into the deep end too soon, nor kept in the shallows too long. This process promotes transfer, encourages retrieval, and builds long-term competence.
Learning Designers: Why does this matter for you?
Learning designers building online courses should consider these principles foundational, as the flow from modelling, to guided support, to independent mastery helps reduce learner frustration, improve retention, and increase confidence.
Tools like insendi support this process by facilitating structured, sequenced learning that allows scaffolding to be built in naturally—without requiring technical skills. Designers can easily model a concept with multimedia, scaffold practice with feedback-rich tasks, and structure fading by gradually shifting responsibility to the learner.
Keep learning: Explore cognitive load theory in learning design
Sources
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
Neelen, M. & Kirschner, P. (2020). Evidence-Informed Learning Design: Creating Training to Improve Performance. Kogan Page.